A practical reference on Lyophilization: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2025-09-30 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
The peptide lacks cysteine, methionine, and tryptophan, so disulfide scrambling and sulfur oxidation are not major degradation routes. Instead, aspartate residues can undergo isomerization or cyclization to succinimide intermediates, generating isoaspartate variants. Hydrolysis of peptide bonds also occurs slowly in solution. These changes may reduce biological activity even when the main peak remains detectable. Stability studies therefore track both potency and the appearance of related substances.
Lyophilized thymosin alpha 1 is typically stored refrigerated at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius and kept away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually used promptly after preparation. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided because they can promote aggregation and loss of activity. The peptide adsorbs to some plastic and glass surfaces, so a carrier protein is often added to dilute working solutions. Manufacturer instructions and published protocols both govern handling.
Identity and purity testing for thymosin alpha 1 relies mainly on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Chromatography separates the parent peptide from truncated or modified variants, while mass spectrometry confirms the expected molecular mass. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional sequence confirmation. Counterion content, water content, and residual solvents are measured separately as part of specification testing. No single method captures every attribute, so laboratories combine several techniques.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
The molecule consists of 28 amino acid residues with an acetyl group attached to the N-terminal serine. Its sequence is acidic overall, with several glutamic and aspartic acid residues distributed along the chain and no cysteine, so disulfide bridges do not form. The peptide carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. Because the N-terminus is blocked, the intact molecule resists degradation by many aminopeptidases, which contributes to its stability in biological fluids.
The peptide is generated in cells by cleavage of prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein encoded by the PTMA gene. Prothymosin alpha is expressed in many tissues, not only in the thymus, and its functions include nuclear roles in chromatin-related processes. The 28-residue fragment corresponds to the N-terminal portion of that precursor. How the cleavage occurs and how the fragment's concentration is regulated remain open questions; circulating amounts are small and difficult to measure reliably with routine assays.
Identity and purity are normally confirmed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The expected mass for the acetylated 28-residue peptide is close to 3108 daltons, and a mass shift indicates a modification or truncation. Peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion can resolve sequence-level questions. Counter-ion content, water content, and residual solvents are separate quality attributes that a certificate of analysis may or may not report. Aggregation is monitored by size-exclusion chromatography when relevant.
Thymosin alpha-1 is supplied as a lyophilized powder in most research settings. The solid dissolves readily in water and in common aqueous buffers, and it is typically reconstituted shortly before use. Solutions are clear and colourless at ordinary working concentrations. Because the peptide is hygroscopic, weighing and reconstitution are usually performed with minimal exposure to ambient air. Aliquots are prepared to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, and working solutions are kept cold.
Immune signaling studies link thymosin alpha 1 to Toll-like receptor pathways, particularly TLR2 and TLR9, on dendritic cells and other antigen-presenting cells. Activation of these receptors promotes maturation of T cells and increases natural killer cell activity. The peptide shifts cytokine output toward a T helper 1 profile, raising interferon gamma and interleukin 2 while modulating interleukin 10. Whether these effects translate into clinical benefit for any specific disease remains a subject of debate. Reported outcomes vary across trials and populations.
Thymosin alpha 1 is approved as a medicine in several countries, including Italy and China, for indications such as chronic hepatitis B and as an immune adjuvant. It is not approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration as a therapeutic product. In research settings the peptide appears in studies of sepsis, vaccine response, and oncology support, often with mixed or inconclusive results. The evidence base is uneven, and reviews note that many trials were small. Regulatory status therefore differs widely between jurisdictions.
=== Industrial origin === Perchlorates are used mostly in rocket propellants but also in disinfectants, bleaching agents, and herbicides. Perchlorate contamination is caused during both the manufacture and ignition of rockets and fireworks. Fireworks are also a source of perchlorate in lakes. Removal and recovery methods of these compounds from explosives and rocket propellants include high-pressure water washout, which generates aqueous ammonium perchlorate.
=== Newborn === Newborns of mammals are exceptional in protein digestion and assimilation in that they can absorb intact proteins at the small intestine. This enables passive immunity, i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via milk.
Although the Iraqi military committed human rights abuses during the invasion, the alleged incidents that received the most publicity in the US were fabrications of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to persuade Americans to support military intervention. Shortly after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the US. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait's government. Among many other means of influencing US opinion, such as distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to US soldiers deployed, "Free Kuwait" T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and video news releases to television stations, the firm arranged for an appearance before members of the US Congress in which a young woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor. The story helped tip the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52–47 vote. However, a year after the war, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The young woman was found to be a member of Kuwait's royal family and the daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the US. She had not lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.
=== Applications === The enhanced sensitivity of eSimoa is crucial for early and accurate biomarker detection in clinical diagnostics, facilitating better disease monitoring and management. In drug discovery, the ability to track subtle changes in enzymatic activity aids in the development of more effective pharmaceuticals by providing detailed insights into enzyme inhibition mechanisms.
Precondition for repetitious manufacturing of porous glass is the knowledge about structure determining and structure controlling parameters. The composition of the initial glass is a structure controlling parameter. The manufacturing of the initial glass, mainly the cooling process, the temperature and time of thermal treatment, and the after treatment are structure determining parameters. The phase diagram for sodiumborosilica glass shows a miscibility gap for certain glass compositions. The upper critical temperature lies at about 760 °C and the lower one at about 500 °C. O.S. Moltschanova was the first person who exactly described the definition of the exsolution. For a phase separation the initial glass composition must lie in the miscibility gap of the ternary Na2O-B2O3-SiO2 glass system. By a thermal treatment, an interpenetration structure is generated, which results from a spinodal decomposition of the sodium-rich borate phase and the silica phase. This procedure is called primary decomposition. Using an initial glass composition, which lies on the line of anomaly, it is possible to attain a maximum decomposition, which is almost strainless. As both phases have a different resistances to water, mineral acids, and inorganic salt solutions, the sodium-rich borate phase in these mediums can be removed by extraction. Optimal extraction is possible only if the initial glass composition and thermal treatment are chosen such that combine structures form, and not droplet structures.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
2 December The Gold Brush - Paint's Green Revolution, narrated by Gavin Weightman, produced by Michael Wills, directed by Jill Freeman, made by Juniper Productions 9 December Towards a Cure for Cancer, about the possibilities of hexamethylene bisacetamide (HMBA); Paul Marks and Richard Rifkind of the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center; chemist Ronald Breslow of Columbia University and HMBA; Charlotte Friend made a discovery in 1970, staining a cell with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), where it made cancer cells make hemoglobin; Lorraine Baltzer, a research nurse; tretinoin was found to work in 1988, and first prescribed in September 1990; Bruce Chabner of the National Cancer Institute; differentiation therapy and Protein kinase C (PKC), signal transduction and biochemical cascades; tests on HL60 did not work; another compound was suberic bishydroxamic acid (SBHA). Narrated by Derek Cooper, directed by Karl Sabbath, made by InCA with WTTW 16 December School's Out, about developments in educational technology and the history of educational psychology, with cognitive psychologist Kristina Hooper Woolsey, educationalist Stephen Heppell, computer scientist Alan Kay, works such as the Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM by Professor of Music at UCLA, Robert Winter; the Italian educator Maria Montessori; the Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget; educational psychologist Jerome Bruner; computer scientist Seymour Papert.
=== Selected articles === Ajayaghosh, Ayyappanpillai, Subi J. George (2001). “First phenylenevinylene based organogels: self-assembled nanostructures via cooperative hydrogen bonding and π-stacking”. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 21, 5148-5149. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja005933+. Ajayaghosh, Ayyappanpillai, Priya Carol, and Sivaramapanicker Sreejith (2005) “A Ratiometric Fluorescence Probe for Selective Visual Sensing of Zn2+”. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 43, 14962-14963. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja054149s. Ajayaghosh, Ayyappanpillai, Vakayil K. Praveen, Chakkooth Vijayakumar, Subi J. George (2007). “Molecular Wire Encapsulated into π Organogels: Efficient Supramolecular Light-Harvesting Antennae with Color-Tunable Emission”. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 6260-6265. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200701925. Ajayaghosh, Ayyappanpillai, Vakayil K. Praveen (2008). “π-Organogels of Self-Assembled p-Phenylenevinylenes: Soft Materials with Distinct Size, Shape, and Functions”. Acc. Chem. Res. 2007, 40, 8, 644-656. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar7000364 Vijayakumar, Chakkooth; Praveen, Vakayil K.; Kartha, Kalathil K.; Ajayaghosh, Ayyappanpillai (2011). "Excitation energy migration in oligo(p-phenylenevinylene) based organogels: structure-property relationship and FRET efficiency". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 13 (11): 4942–4949. Bibcode:2011PCCP...13.4942V. doi:10.1039/C0CP02110E. PMID 21321716. S2CID 19328938. Kartha, Kalathil K.; Babu, Sukumaran S.; Srinivasan, Sampath; Ajayaghosh, Ayyappanpillai (2012).
In a meta-analysis of various trials involving fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine (Faverin/Luvox), and sertraline (Zoloft) to test their relative efficacies in treating OCD, clomipramine was found to be significantly more effective. Other studies have borne similar results even when risk of bias is eliminated. A potentially significantly greater inherent side-effect profile, however, makes it a second-line choice in the treatment of OCD. SSRIs are generally better-tolerated but appear to be inferior in terms of actual clinical efficacy.
=== Other names === GAR-936 Tygacil Tigeplug (marketed by Biocon, India) Tigilyn (Marketed by Real Value therapy pharmaceuticals company in Myanmar, Manufactured by Lyka) TIGILITE (marketed in INDIA, Scutonix Lifesciences, Bombay)
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Charterism === In line with Seekings's latter point, some historians have assigned a central role to the rise of what was known by 1984 as Charterism: adherence to the Freedom Charter, the anti-apartheid political manifesto adopted at the 1955 Congress of the People (and subsequently banned by the apartheid state). After a period of dormancy inside the country while Black Consciousness ideology predominated, Charterism had been revived from around 1979. On some accounts, this revival was partly the result of the interest of young people, and COSAS, certainly, was fiercely Charterist. Although the UDF had not yet formally adopted the Freedom Charter, many of its affiliates and leaders, while usually identifying implicitly with the ANC, identified explicitly with the Charter; and the growth of the UDF contributed to the spread of Charterism. According to Raymond Suttner:A whole generation had grown up without access to literature about the Congress movement. This is not to say that the memory was wiped out, but there was a rupture, organisationally, in terms of symbols and also in the free and widespread diffusion of values. The UDF reconnected people to that tradition...Widespread subscription to the principles of the Freedom Charter, in turn, may have partly inspired the uprising, particularly insofar as the Freedom Charter provided a framework for "linking everyday grievances to aspirations for a new society" or, in other words, for the identification of "the intersection between localised grievances and the strategies and ideology of the ANC".
=== 1980s === 1982: Nephrologist Leah Lowenstein became the first woman dean of a co-educational medical school in the United States. 1983: Barbara McClintock received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of genetic transposition; she was the first woman to receive that prize without sharing it, and the first American woman to receive any unshared Nobel Prize. 1984: Kathryn D. Sullivan becomes the first American woman to walk in space. 1988: Patricia Bath was the first African American woman to receive a medical patent, which was her invention of laser cataract treatment. 1988: Gertrude B. Elion received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with James W. Black and George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment".
The minerals, results of biomineralization processes regulated by the environment or bacteria, are also essential components of the exopolysaccharides. They provide structural integrity to biofilm matrix and act as a scaffold to protect bacterial cells from shear forces and antimicrobial chemicals. The minerals in EPS were found to contribute to morphogenesis of bacteria and the structural integrity of the matrix. For example, in Bacillus subtilis, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms, calcite (CaCO3) contributes to the integrity of the matrix. The minerals also associate with medical conditions. In the biofilms of Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, and Providencia rettgeri, the minerals calcium and magnesium cause catheter encrustation.
=== Final months === In 2004, the team returned after Christmas to long hours, stressful working conditions, and no guarantee that Half-Life 2, which was costing $1 million a month to develop, would be finished soon. However, Newell felt that momentum was gathering, with the team producing about three hours of gameplay per month. In March, they created the first version playable from start to finish and stopped development for a week to play through. Major changes by this point included the cutting of the Borealis, the replacement of the jet ski with an airboat, and introducing the physics-manipulating gravity gun earlier. Feedback was positive across the company. Newell recalled: "The fact that you could go from one end of the game to the other was a really big thing for us. Then we knew it just had to get better – but it was all there." After several months of bug fixes and playtesting, Half-Life 2 was completed on October 13, 2004.
=== Stable vs radioactive isotopes === All isotopes of an element have the same number of protons with varying numbers of neutrons. Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes: 1H, 2H and 3H; called protium (H), deuterium (D) and tritium (T), respectively. Both 1H and 2H are stable, while 3H is unstable and beta-decays to 3He. While there are some important applications of 3H in geochemistry (such as its use as an ocean circulation tracer) these will not be discussed further here.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
The lyophilized powder is kept refrigerated at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius and protected from light. Reconstituted solutions should be used promptly. Freezing and thawing repeatedly is avoided.